In Western and Eastern Europe, anti-Semitism has evolved in different ways. Historically, we can distinguish two periods. During the first period, there was traditional anti-Semitism or so-called Judophobia. During the second one, modern anti-Semitism emerged. The first period is often associated with Christianity. It was in the religious sphere where the main anti-Semitic myths were created: about the responsibility of Jews for the death of Jesus Christ, about the murder of Christian children (boys) for ritual purposes, about poisoning wells and deliberately promoting the spread of infection (plague), etc. Of course, these myths have nothing to do with reality.

Instead, the roots of modern anti-Semitism can be traced to the Enlightenment, which we used to consider progressive. It was then that new xenophobic ideologies and, in particular, racism were born. Anti-Semitism evolved accordingly. From then on, Jews as a ‘different race’ were deprived of the chance for ‘correction’ through baptism, as in the previous era. These pseudo-scientific ideas were further developed in the 19th century. Western Europe, notably France and Germany, were at the forefront of this issue. For example, it was the German journalist Wilhelm Marr, who introduced the term ‘anti-Semite’.

In Eastern Europe, the nation-building processes that took place at that time significantly impacted the spread of anti-Semitism.

A relevant question... Especially during the war against Ukraine. Indeed, russian propaganda is constantly and persistently trying to impose the idea that Ukrainians are inherently anti-Semitic. However, the answer to this question is straightforward and unambiguous: there is no geographical or ethnic determination of anti-Semitism. It all depends on factors that cause xenophobic sentiments in society and the number of Jewish population in a particular country.

It is incorrect to compare the anti-Semitism of the Nazis and the Communists. Anti-Semitism certainly existed in the USSR. Its roots date back to the russian Empire. On the other hand, it is well-known that Jews were co-creators of the russian Revolution and held leading positions in the Bolshevik Party. Isn’t this a contradiction? No, on the contrary, it is natural: it was the discrimination they suffered in the empire that pushed them into the ranks of the revolutionaries.

First, things went quite well. In the 1920s, the Bolshevik policy of ‘indigenization’ even led to an outbreak of Jewish culture in the Yiddish language. But then, in the 1930s, Stalin’s ‘conservative turn’ took place, as a result of which Russian nationalism became the foundation of the totalitarian regime. In order to maintain their positions, the Jews were forced to adapt, abandoning their culture and identity. However, this, as we know, did not save them from repression.

After World War II, the USSR underwent another metamorphosis. The Soviet leadership made intolerance of Jews part of the state ideology. At the same time, they tried to hide outwardly anti-Semitism for a long time behind the screen of the anti-Israeli position that the USSR took on the international stage after the creation of the Jewish state. It is not for nothing that the then-Israeli ambassador to the USSR, Golda Meir, accused the USSR of state anti-Semitism from the UN rostrum. And inside the country, the Soviet government introduced unofficial anti-Semitic norms, including those that limited the ability of Jews to enter higher education.

Ukrainian anti-Semitism is no more unique than the history of Ukraine itself. It has evolved under the historical influence of two traditions: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Polish: Rzeczpospolita) and the russian Empire. In general, its genesis correlates with the evolution of anti-Semitism in this part of Europe. However, if we are talking about any particular manifestations of Ukrainian anti-Semitism, it is probably the mass extermination of the Jewish population in the mid-17th century during the war led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky.

The influence of neighboring peoples determined the anti-Semitic views of the Ukrainian elite in the following centuries. However, already in the 20th century and, in particular, in the period between the First and Second World Wars, there were attempts to ideologically justify anti-Semitism as being in the interests of Ukraine. It primarily concerns the works of the ideologue of Ukrainian integral (authoritarian) nationalism, Dmytro Dontsov. The anti-Semitic views are argued to be also characteristic of representatives of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, which emerged in 1929 in Vienna and was active in western Ukraine, at that time part of the Polish state. Against this background, it may seem that there was no anti-Semitism in the Ukrainian SSR (Soviet Ukraine). However, we have already stated above that this would be misleading.

In this matter, we should rely on the opinion of experts, for example, Viacheslav Likhachov. He is in charge of a group monitoring the observance of the rights of national minorities in Ukraine. If we briefly summarize his observations of nearly twenty years, it turns out that the situation with anti-Semitism in Ukraine has improved. According to some reports, Ukraine even ranks among the countries with the lowest rates of anti-Semitic manifestations. However, such rankings often look like a sociology competition.

My own observations give me reasons to believe that we have a quite normal situation in this regard. However, I cannot say that we do not have anti-Semitism. Yes, sometimes I come across some statements, and some inscriptions on fences, but for the most part, these are still marginal trends.

According to my observations, contrary to the rhetoric and ‘pink dreams’ of the russian propaganda machine, the situation with anti-Semitism has been positively evolving in Ukrainian society since 2019, demonstrating a strong commitment to values rejecting xenophobia and anti-Semitism, even in wartime.